The origin of dowry payment among Bukusu people of Kenya

The origin of dowry payment among Bukusu people of Kenya

Written by: Timothy Makokha

In the beginning people were just pairing up basing on a mutual understanding of the man and woman. Whether the person was marrying the first, second or whichever wife, he could not give anything to the parents of the girl despite the fact that she is leaving her parents to start a new marriage life in a new home, new environment and taking up of foreign cultural believes as it is believed that it was a woman to get accustomed to the cultural requsirements of the clan of the husband.

A time came when elders saw the need for them to bring in the idea of dowry negotiations (eng’anana). There were various reasons for this, first was sirara (granary full of grain). This means that a girl might have been a hard working farmer, who had been doing a lot of farming activities on their farm when she was still under the care of her parents. When she gets married, her parents would feel the loss in terms of labor on the farm and therefore a man was to give them something to make them not mind the departure of their hard working daughter.

The second reason was kumwoulo (the goodness of a wife).  Originally it was believed that a wife is a source of wealth to her husband. For example a wife would do most of the house hold chores including cooking, fetching water/firewood and other farming activities on the farm. Dowry was to be paid as appreciation and as a sign as respect to the in-laws. For example a man would earn respect from his in-laws without paying dowry.

Another reason was lukosi (love for the girl). Dowry was to be paid as a sign of love for a wife. This would even make the love between a couple to be stronger as the wife will feel valued and respected by her husband.

Kumuliano (feasting together) was another reason for dowry payment. Dowry negotiations were an opportunity for members of the two clans (clan members for the wife and clan members for the husband) to meet and talk freely while enjoying meals and local liquor (busaa). In such sessions the two parties get an opportunity to learn more about the taboos and beliefs of each other.

There was a slight difference between dowry negotiations for the girl who was pure and the one with a child or children. Eng’anana (dowry negotiation) for a girl who had not given birth at her parents home was done under a tree outside the house while for the one with children or a child at her parent’s home, the ceremony is done inside a house.

Generally, dowry payment was meant to strengthen the bond in a marriage (khuandalasia bulebe).

It was important to pay dowry just in case a wife dies of child delivery, it would be easier to handle the in-laws in such a crisis. That’s why one of the cows given as dowry was called ekhafu ye lifumo (cattle as a fine in case a wife dies during child delivery. In some cases if the clan members of the wife has prove that the wife was intentionally killed then the husband would pay for the head of the deceased wife (arunga kumurwe).

Elders were also advising people to pay dowry because of the routinely intimacy between a wife and a husband (orunga khuchia mumarango komukhasi).

Just in case a wife dies before dowry payment, only specific number of cattle is given not all the 13 animals. In this case one would be required to pay ye khusera (cow for proposing to the girl), ye lubeko (cow for shaving the pubic hair of the wife in her husband’s home), ye khukwisia situru (in payment of making breasts of a woman flat), yembako/sirara (for the work she had done in her husband’s home), ya khocha (for the brother to her mother). Traditionally, Bukusu people believed that a married woman can only shave her pubic hair only when she is in her husband’s compound but not from any other place not even at her matrimonial home.

In case a wife was married as a virgin, the blood stained beddings used on the first night are to be taken to the grand mother to the girl together with embusi sisonga (mature she-goat). This was done in respect for the girl who was pure. A goat is as well given to the aunt (sister to the father of the girl). For a girl who had children at home (nasikoko), a husband would not pay ekhafu ye situru as her breasts were already flat at the time of her marriage.

Traditionally one was not allowed to accept or take dowry from his daughters if he has not paid dowry for his wife. In such case, a person pays dowry for his wife first, then after one year demand for dowry from married daughters.

Those were the days when age was highly appreciated. For example, a person was not expected to organize for dowry negotiations (eng’anana) for a young daughter before organizing one for the eldest daughter. The same is applied with sons as the first son in a homestead should be the first pone to pay dowry and hold dowry negotiations as younger ones do the same up to the youngest.

 In case the young son is ready to pay dowry ahead of his elder brother, then he only give the animals but the dowry negotiation is not held until the elder brothers make dowry negotiations. The same is applied to daughters, when the husband of the youngest daughter wants to pay dowry ahead of her elder sister, then the animals are received but the dowry negotiations are not done until the one for the eldest daughter pay.

Later in life after the introduction of circumcision, dowry payment was as well associated with circumcision where a male child was to be taken to his uncles (brother to the mother) a day to the circumcision day.

The reason for a boy/initiate going for likhoni (reward from an uncle, which is normally a young bull) at his uncle’s home means that there were some cultural spirits from the mother’s side that the father’s side are not aware of. The initiates were to call their uncles to oversee the circumcision ceremony and give lubito to the initiates, in the process of handing over to them the cultural spirits from the mother’s side.

Continue paying dowry, as long as man kind exists in respect to the original reasons for dowry payment. The future of dowry payment is bright despite the misinterpretation of the dowry concept by the misguided people. 

WRITING FOR MAGAZINES

WRITING FOR MAGAZINES

Magazines   cater   to   the   tastes, temperaments  and  interests  of  specific  groups, These  groups,  with  their  special  identified  interests, provide  a  possible  readership  for  many  stories  that  have little or no appeal to the general public.

Magazines have contributed or pioneered a number of important aspects to journalism, including

• Investigative reporting

• Photojournalism

• The personality profile

• Narrative journalistic writing (in the newsmagazine style)

Classes of Magazines

 In general, the four major classes of magazines are as  follows:

·                     Consumer

·                     Trade, technical, professional and business

·                     Company  (house  organs)

Consumer magazines

Consumer magazines, the largest of the four classes, include all those publications found on the newsstand .Their contents attempt to appeal to the general public  or  to  large  groups  in  our  society  that  share common   interests.   With   few   exceptions,   consumer magazines carry advertising and are sold individually or by   subscription.   A   few   magazines   that   qualify   as “consumers” are sold only by subscription. Consumer magazines  are  made  up  of  general interest publications and special interest publications. This distinction is made not so much for the readers as for the potential writers of magazine articles. Magazines  are  purchased  by  people  who  expect certain   things   from   a   particular   publication.   For   a magazine to be successful, those expectations must be met.  Therefore, a  writer  must  adapt  to  the  style prescribed by a magazine’s editorial policy and submit only stories dealing with its expressed area of concern. Any  disregard  of  this  policy  will  result  in  a  story’s automatic  rejection,  regardless  of  how  interesting  or well written it maybe.

General  interest  publications - as  the  category implies,   are   intended   for   the   general   public.   Their subject  matter  is  broad,  and  their  appeal  usually transcends  most  of  the  boundaries  of  age,  sex,  race, education, occupation and geography. Magazines such as Reader’s Digest, Life, fall   neatly   into   this   category.   Each contains   a   variety   of   articles   to   interest   a   diverse audience.  Others, such as Time and Newsweek,   also qualify as general interest publications. Although they concentrate primarily on news and current events, they still cover a wide range of subjects, offering something for everyone.  Also, their material  is  presented  in  an easily read style that explains a news story in a way any reader can understand. Some magazines originally published for specific groups   now   attract   a   wider   audience   because   of interesting articles.

Special Interest Publications -  as  the  term  implies, are magazines directed at specific groups of readers with one or more common interests. Some  magazines  attempt  to  cover  all  aspects  of  a broad  subject,  while  others  are  concerned  only  with  a particular    element    of    the    general    subject.    Sports Illustrated, for example, contains stories on practically any sport, but world Football carries only stories related to soccer. Other    special    interest    publications    find    their audiences through different demographic segmentations. There are magazines published primarily for men (Adam and   ,   Playboy,   Gentlemen’s   Quarterly,   etc.), women  (True Love, Cosmopolitan,  Vogue,  Woman’s  World,  etc.), boys (Boys’ Life) or girls (Teen). There  are  magazines  for  various  age  groups.  For example,  Senior World  is  published  for  senior  citizens; Careers for boys and girls, ages 15 to 18; Children’s Digest for boys and girls, ages 8 to 10; Jack and Jill for children, ages 6 to 8; and Highlights for Children, ages 2 to 12. There are also magazines aimed at blacks and other minorities.  Ebony,  for  example,  is  intended  for  black men  and  women  and  could  be  considered  a  “general interest  publication.”  Essence  is  one  of  a  number  of magazines  published  with  black  women  in  mind,  and Players caters to black male readers. Some  magazines  are  published  for  residents  of  a specific location etc.

Trade, Technical, Professional and Business

Magazines in the trade, technical, professional and business class are published for active business people. The readers of these publications are looking for ways to improve their businesses and increase profits. While they might appreciate a little humor in the articles and want the material to be well-written, they are not reading them for pleasure. These business journals are designed to appeal to one of the following three specific groups:

·                     Retailers

·                     Manufacturers

·                     Professionals   and   industry   experts

Retailers, along with business people who perform various  services,  are  interested  in  such  subjects  as successful  sales  campaigns  and  unique  merchandise displays.  Manufacturers  expect  articles  dealing  with ways  to  solve  industry  problems,  such  as  personnel absenteeism  and  equipment  failure.  Professionals  and industry experts want stories about new techniques and technical developments in their respective fields. All of these business people are interested in making money and managing their businesses more efficiently. Therefore, the primary purpose of each of the business journals is the goal of helping its readers do their jobs better.  Besides  stories  about  business  trends  and solutions  to  problems,  these  publications  often  offer advice  on  ways  a  particular  business  can  be  operated more  profitably.

Trade  Journals- While the term trade journal is often applied to all publications  in  the  business  journal  class,  there  are subtle differences. A  trade  refers  to  skilled  work  usually  requiring extensive  training,  but  not  necessarily  formal  education, to master it. Carpentry is one example of a trade; printing is another.  Therefore, a trade journal is a publication addressing the skilled laborers in a particular field, or the work they perform.  Motor Magazine  and Ceramic Monthly are examples of trade journals.

Technical  Journals -Technical  journals  usually  discuss  sophisticated material,   equipment   or   instruments   and   their   use. Examples of technical journals are   Datamation, Broadcasting and Photomethods.

Professional  Journals -Professional journals are publications intended for professional   people.   This   group   primarily   includes persons   with   a   vocation   or   occupation   requiring advanced education and training and involving intellectual skills.  This group specifically comprises those working in such fields as law, medicine, theology, education,   engineering,   journalism,   and   so   forth. However, the term professional has, in general use, been expanded.  It  now  includes  the  executives,  managers, department  heads,  some  staff  members  and  even  the sales force of most business enterprises.

Business Journals -There are business journals for those persons in, seemingly,   every   occupation   imaginable.   There   is the Accountant for   accountants,   Advertising   Age   for ad agency personnel, Chilton’s Food Engineering for those in   the   food   and   beverage   processing   industry   and   Grocery Distribution    for operators of food warehouses and distribution   centers.   Police is   published   for   law enforcement personnel and Editor and Publisher for newspaper personnel. 

Company Publications (House Organs)

Unlike business journals, company publications, or house organs, are produced by, or for, the businesses or organizations they serve.  Their readers need or want certain information about the companies for which they work, and the companies try to provide it. There are six basic kinds of house organs. Many of the larger companies publish them all.  These journals serve the desire to communicate to an internal or external audience. And all have a need for material that will interest their readers. The   types   of   company   publications   are   as follows:

·    Employee

·    Customer

·    Stockholder or corporate

·    Sales Dealer etc.

MAGAZINE ARTICLES

·    Magazine journalism is attractive to young people who are interested in the field because they do not have to work under daily deadlines, magazine articles are long and more in-depth, the articles receive better display, and magazines have more prestige than newspapers.

·    Magazines are different from newspapers not just in the frequency with which they are published but also because they deliver news and information with more depth and perspective.

·    Writing in magazines does not conform to all of the strictures that writing in daily newspapers must observe; the requirements of accuracy and good writing are just as strict, however.

·    The  major  difference  between  a  magazine  article and  a  newspaper  story  is  the  style  in  which  each  is written.

·    Magazines are created because someone (or some group) has an editorial idea and can identify an audience that would be interested in the idea and a set of advertisers that would like to sell products to that audience.

·    Since  magazine  articles  are  printed  in  their  entirety, there  are  no  requirements  to  put  all  of  the  important details  “up  front.”  Therefore,  magazine  writers  may  use any  format  they  believe  best  suits  the  material  being presented.  This  allows  the  writers  wider  latitudes  of expression  and  creativity.

·    The magazine form also provides writers with the opportunity to be more thorough in their storytelling. Both news stories and magazine articles deal with facts.

·    When necessary, magazines also permit their writers to provide extensive background details to enable the reader to understand the subject more.

·    A newspaper’s news has a perishable quality; its value and interest diminish as the degree of immediacy wanes. The news in magazines, although less timely, is more   enduring.   Many   magazine   articles   are   as informative and interesting a year after publication as they  were  on  the  day  they  first  appeared  in  print. Magazine  articles  also  are  remembered  longer  than newspaper  stories  because  magazines  are  read  more thoroughly,  and  at  a  more  leisurely  pace,  than  are newspapers.

TYPES OF MAGAZINE ARTICLES

Any attempt to classify all of the forms of magazine articles   would   probably   prove   to   be inadequate. However, certain characteristics do tend to identify seven general categories.  These categories frequently overlap, and the dividing lines that separate them often become blurred. For our purposes, there are seven basic types of magazine articles. They are as follows:

·    Personality sketch, Personal experience, Confession, Narrative, Utility, Interview ,Featurette

Personality Sketch

The personality sketch is a short biography that includes an individual’s achievements. The purpose of an  article  of  this  type,  whether  a  success  article  or  a profile, is to portray the intimate details of character and personality  of  someone.  The  person  may  be  widely known, one who has achieved some form of greatness or  someone  whose  life  is  in  some  way  interesting  or remarkable. The individual does not have to be a famous show business or political personality;

Personal Experience

 Unusual adventures, unique accomplishments, rare travel experiences and countless other personal experiences lend themselves to treatment in this type of article. “My  60  Days  Under  the  Sea  in  an  Atomic Submarine,”  “I Walked  on  the  Moon”  ‘my life in crime’ are  typical  titles  of  personal experience   articles. Many have had exciting   personal   experiences   they   might   have developed into good magazine articles.  Quite often, however, they do not have the ability, the time or the inclination   to   write   these   experiences   on   paper. Nevertheless,   they   usually   will   talk   about   their experiences which can provide a good story opportunist y for a journalist in search of ideas. When you write this type of article, use the “as told to...” byline. Be cautious when writing in the first person. The frequent use of “I” can become, or appear, egotistical.

Confession

The confession article is not necessarily a “shocker” or scandal story.  Instead,  it  is  an  “inside  story”  of conditions   or   problems   normally   unfamiliar   to   the average  reader.  The  confession  article  often  involves handicaps  or  disadvantages  that  are  overcome  by determination and common sense. Incidents  related  in  confession  articles  are  often typical  of  everyday  life.  A  spoiled,  rich  kid  learns discipline and responsibility in campus..  A young man cures a morbid fear of water by joining the Navy. Subjects like these have been used in confession articles. The most noticeable characteristic of the confession story is the intimate, confidential tone in which the writer seems to be personally revealing a secret to the reader. Although the subject matter is personal, it must evoke an emphatic response from the reader. Humor should not be overlooked in this type of article.  An individual’s willingness to tell the story shows that he or she is not ashamed. If humor can be injected   into   the   account,   it   indicates   an   objective approach. Some subjects are best when given a humorous treatment.   Many   interesting   articles   about   common phobias, such as a visit to the dentist, have been written that way. This approach often helps readers to see that most of the fear is unfounded. If the humor is skillfully handled, the readers will probably be amused.

Narrative

The narrative involves Sharp   characterization,   vivid description, dialogue; action and suspense are skillfully woven into the framework of a narrative article to dramatize the facts. However, the facts must be adapted to this type of treatment.  The writer does not invent them, exaggerate them or embellish them in any way. The story must be authentic even in the smallest detail. The real life exploits and adventures of sailors the world over are told in magazine articles using the narrative  approach.  A  heroic  rescue,  an  epic  battle,  a dramatic  struggle  against  the  elements,  a  display  of bravery and determination in the face of overwhelming difficulties are all subjects that maybe developed into narrative articles. Careful   research   is   important   in   writing   the narrative article.. Also, the writing should be colorful and fast-paced. Otherwise it may sound like a chapter out of a history textbook.

Utility

Any process, product, method or idea that will help the reader become wiser, healthier, wealthier or happier is   a   subject   for   the   utility   article.   Also   called   the “how-to-do-it” article, the utility article is generally shorter than most other articles and the writing is usually expository or explanatory.. At one time or another, practically everyone has devised a scheme to improve a job, working conditions or equipment. These ideas are especially valuable if they can be tailored for a specific magazine. The most common   approach   is   to   use   the   second   person, imperative voice (You fit the tie on your shirt ...).

Interview

Interview  articles  present  questions  and  answers that  offer  a  subject’s  views  on  a  given  topic.  Little background  information  is  given  in  the  article  if  the subject is widely known to the readers and the emphasis is  on  the  topic  of  discussion.  The interview requires much advance planning, however, and the writer should research the subject thoroughly before conducting the interview.

Featurette

The  featurette  is  probably  the  most  popular  and best-selling  short  article  found  in  magazines  today.  It is short and simple, and it contains the element of oddity or humor, and sometimes both.  The purpose of the featurette is to entertain. “Humor in Uniform” and “all in a day’s work,” regular sections in Reader’s Digest, are good examples   of   the   featurette.   Nearly   every   magazine carries at least one anecdote as filler material in each issue.

RESEARCHING AN IDEA FOR A MAGAZINE ARTICLE

Every  person,  place,  event  or  thing  is  a  possible source  for  a  magazine  article.  What  one  person  sees daily  and  takes  for  granted,  another  person  with  a well-developed eye for the interesting and unusual often can turn it into a successful article.

Purpose-Any  magazine  article,  whether  for  a  glamorous nationwide consumer magazine or for one of the internal  publications,  should  begin  with  a  good  idea supported by a statement of purpose. An author without a purpose for an article easily loses sight of the intended goal.  If  an  article  would  serve  no  purpose,  the  likely result   would   be   wasted   time   and   an   unintelligible product

Research-One writer, preparing to write a personality sketch on a famous composer, spent six months doing research before he felt ready to interview his subject.  During those six months, the writer spent three months reading about symphonies.  He spent another two months month talking to people who knew the composer. Studying that particular composer’s works and a final obviously,   you   will   not   spend   six   months researching every magazine article you write.  However, in most cases,  you  will  need  to  do  some  extensive research. The in-depth nature of most magazine articles requires   that   the   writer   thoroughly   understand   the subject he or she is presenting. Unless you are writing from  personal  experience,  you  must  be  prepared  to conduct  whatever  research  is  necessary  to  give  your article the degree of authority it requires.

Studying Magazine Styles

·    Knowing   the   markets   for   magazine   articles   is almost as important as knowing your subject.  The best-written manuscript serves no purpose tucked away in a file cabinet or desk drawer. And the best-conceived idea for an article is of no value unless it is presented in an acceptable manuscript. Studying   magazines   can   solve   both   of   these problems.

·    Your research will tell you which magazine publishers are interested in your subject and the style in which they want articles to be written.

·    As you examine the magazines, you should be alert to  the  literary  style  or  approach  a  magazine  takes  in presenting  a  subject.  For  instance,  several  magazines might handle a piece dealing with the GM foods, but each would  present  it  in  an  entirely  different  way.  In studying magazines styles, consider:

·    Names(s) of editor(s). Frequency of publication. Circulation Demography of readers. Approximate number of manuscripts purchased per issue (if any). Method  of  payment  (flat  rate  for  manuscript, pays per line of copy, pays per word, pays percent of magazine royalties, pays in magazine copies, pays nothing).. Whether by-line is given. Description of material desired. Description of material not desired. Whether photos are desired, and if so, payment rates. Minimum and maximum lengths of manuscripts. Whether unsolicited manuscripts are accepted. Whether previously published submissions are accepted. Whether simultaneous submissions are accepted. (Some magazines, especially regional ones, will consider   such   submissions   if   the   offered manuscripts   are   not   being sent   to   other publications in their state or geographical area.)

Writing a Magazine Article

Generally, a magazine article can be divided into four basic components: The title, the lead, the body, the conclusion.

THE TITLE

·    The title of a magazine article should tell the readers the nature of the article. It usually features a short, terse statement designed to attract their attention or to arouse their curiosity.

·    The title should entice the audience to read the article immediately. A title, like the article itself, should be slanted or directed toward a particular market.

·    Each magazine has its   own   title   requirements   for   style,   length   and typographical   arrangement.   

·    In developing titles for their articles, writers must be honest. They should not mislead the reader with facts not  supported  by  the  articles,  and  they  should  avoid exaggeration or sensationalism. The title should convey the tone and spirit of the material  featured  in  the  article.  Declarative  sentences with concrete nouns and active verbs are best

THE  LEAD

The lead of a magazine article is similar to the lead of a news story, except it is usually longer and nearly always more difficult to write. The lead may run only one paragraph in length, or it may run as much as 10 percent of the entire article. Whatever space you allot to your lead, it must accomplish the following objectives:

·    Indicate the central idea to be conveyed in the article.

·    Contain a hint of the spirit and movement of the article.

·    Locate the subject as to time and place.

·    Show any relation that may exist between the facts and the reader.

·    Generate enough interest to make the reader want to read the rest of the article.

THE BODY

·    The title of a magazine article attracts an audience’s attention.  The  lead  arouses  curiosity,  stimulates  interest and whets the readers’ appetite for more facts. The body of the article must keep the readers interested. Keeping your audience interested for two or three thousand  words  is  a  tough  job.  

·    To  do  this,  you  must weigh every word, every sentence and every paragraph carefully. The facts you use must not only be interesting in  themselves,  but  they  must  be  presented  in  an interesting   manner.

·    relate the details in the order in which they happened. With this approach, you can depend on the action to hold the readers’ interest.  

·    However, an article that contains no action and only presents straight, factual information, a writer must use skill and imagination in presenting them. The facts must flow from the article naturally, without awkward pauses or sudden changes in direction.

·    In   all   magazine   articles,   paragraphs   should   be written so  they  interlock.    The  end  of  one  paragraph should  lead  naturally  into  the  beginning  of  the  next.

·    Transitions should be used in such a  manner  that  the readers are not even aware of them.

·    Appropriately insert anecdotes, specific examples and hypothetical situations. These devices help illustrate points and emphasize important facts

THE CONCLUSION

A magazine article should end as dramatically as it began. When appropriate, use an anecdote that typifies the main points presented in the body. Surprise endings also   work   well.   The conclusion   should   neatly   and succinctly tie together all the threads of the article and bring it to a smooth finish.

X �8a > � �T >The pronoun will be a predicate nominative, as in "It was we who discovered the mistake. (A predicate nominative is a noun that comes after a non-action verb and renames the subject. We, for example, renames It, the subject of the sentence. The verb, was, is a nonaction verb.)

·         Objective case

·         The objective case pronouns are: me, you, him, her, it, us, you (meaning "you all") and them. Note that the pronouns "you," "it," and "you (meaning "you all")" have identical nominative and objective case forms.

·         Use an objective case pronoun if:

·         The pronoun will be the direct object of a verb, as in "My father gave me this toolbox." (You wouldn't say, "My father gave I this tookbox," because I is a nominative case pronoun.)

·         The pronoun will be the direct object of a preposition, as in "The car swerved around him. (You wouldn't say, "The car swerved around he," because "he" is a nominative case pronoun. A preposition, by the way, is any word like "around," "over," "to," "from," "at," etc. that shows some kind of connection between two other words. The best definition of a preposition I've ever heard is "anywhere a mouse can go." (Back to top)

Quotes: Be selective about what you choose to present as a direct quote. Nine times out of 10, you can use a paraphrase to do a better job than the source did of saying what the source said.

·         When you use a direct quote, it's important to use a quote that forms a complete sentence. In other words, don't use a partial quote.

·         Always set up a quote by preceding it with a paragraph that:

·         Indicates who is about to talk

·         Gives a general paraphrase of what he or she is about to say

·         Then present the quote in its own paragraph. Here's an example (also note the punctuation):

Detective Jason Otiso said the suspects, both wanted in five states on charges of murder, kidnapping and robbery, should be considered armed and dangerous.
"These two guys make Bonnie and Clyde look like a traveling circus," Otiso said. "These guys are elusive, calculating and, above all, deadly."
Police described the pair as traveling in a stolen, dark blue Ford Explorer. A reward of Ksh.50,000 has been offered for information leading to their arrests.

·         Note how the first graf indicates who's about to speak (Detective Jason Otiso) and gives an idea of what he's about to say (the suspects should be considered armed and dangerous). The second graf presents the quote. The "Smith said" is optional. It's pretty clear that Smith is talking. This format helps the reader keep track of who is saying what in a story. One of the most confusing things you can do in mass media writing is present two quotes, back to back, from two separate sources without indicating that the speaker has changed.

Redundancy: A word is redundant if it adds no meaning to the sentence or phrase it is part of. For example, the word "completely" is redundant in the phrase "completely destroyed." Things can't be "partly destroyed." The word "destroyed" is absolute. Similarly, there's no point in writing "3 p.m. in the afternoon." Use either "3 p.m." or "3 in the afternoon. Other redundancies are more subtle: "joined together," for example, or "collapsed down." Things can't join in any way besides together, and things can't collapse in any way but down.

Run-on sentence: A run-on sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses with no appropriate connections between them. For example, "The driver lost control of the car the vehicle smashed into the guard rail." is a run-on sentence, because two independent clauses, "The driver lost control of the car" and "The vehicle smashed into the guard rail" have been run together with no connecting punctuation or words. The easiest way to fix a run-on sentence is to make each independent clause a separate sentence. "The driver lost control of the car. The vehicle smashed into the guard rail." It's also possible to fix a run-on sentence by using the techniques described under "comma splice."

Said: Use this neutral verb for most attribution jobs. Other words like "stated," "admitted" "asserted," etc. carry connotations that may be inaccurate. "Stated," for instance, suggests that whatever was said was said under some kind of duress. "Admitted" suggests the speaker had been trying to conceal what was said. "Claimed" suggests that what the person is claiming is untrue.

·         Also use "said" to qualify statements made about what someone thinks or believes. For example, writing that "The convicted rapist is sorry for his crimes" may or may not be accurate. It's more accurate to say "The convicted rapist said he is sorry for his crimes."

·         Also remember that the word "that" usually is unnecessary after "said." Use "that" after "said" only if some other word -- a time element, for example -- comes between "said" and the description of what was said. For example: "The president's aide said Friday that the bill is as good as dead."

Semicolon: Semicolons have two main uses:

·         Joining two independent clauses, as in "Billy opened the chips; I poured the soda." The two clauses are independent because each has a subject and a verb (Billy/opened, I/poured).

·         Separating items in a series of things if the things involve commas. For example, "His favorite breakfast foods include ham, eggs and toast; pancakes, syrup and sausage; and bagels, cream cheese and juice."

·         Generally avoid using semicolons in leads, especially if you're doing so to join two independent clauses, as in "Fire destroyed a Nanyuki home yesterday; investigators suspect arson." The structure puts two complete thoughts on equal footing in the lead, leaving readers to wonder which is more important. It's better to make one idea clearly dominant: "A Nanyuki home burned to the ground yesterday in what investigators think may be a case of arson." or "An arsonist may have set the blaze that destroyed a Nanyuki home yesterday, according to investigators."

Sentence fragment: A sentence fragment is a phrase that is presented as a sentence but lacks a subject and/or a verb.

·         For example: "The firefighter crawled through the smoke-filled, inky black room. Groping for the missing boy." The phrase "groping for the missing boy" is capitalized and punctuated as if it were a sentence. But it has no subject and no verb. The idea it conveys would fit better if expressed as part of the preceding sentence: "Groping for the missing boy, the firefighter crawled through the smoke-filled, inky black room."

·         Writers sometimes use sentence fragments for dramatic effect. For example: "The firefighter crawled through the smoke-filled, inky black room. Exhausted, disoriented , terrified, but determined." The latter phrase is a fragment used for dramatic effect. Avoid using fragments this way unless you're sure doing so is appropriate. And do so only occasionally.

Since/because: Use "since" for time relationships, as in "I haven't seen you since last year." Use "because" for cause-and-effect relationships, like "Because my car broke down, I had to catch a bus." Don't make the common mistake of using "since" to mean "because," as in "Since my car broke down, I had to catch a bus."

Spelling: Media writers take spelling pretty seriously. At the very least, run the spelling checker routine available in whatever application you're using to compose your assignments. If you're unsure of a word's spelling, look the word up in a dictionary. Nothing will discredit your writing quicker than crummy spelling.

Suffered/sustained: In newspaper parlance, buildings, cars and other inanimate objects "sustain damage." People or animals "suffer injuries."

That: The word "that" can cause trouble in at least two ways:

First, generally, omit "that" after any tense of the verb "to say." For example, "The president said he had signed the bill." Keep "that," however, if a time element appears directly after any tense of the verb "to say." For example, "The president said Monday that he had signed the bill." Also keep "that" if it is followed by a subordinate clause beginning with a conjunction like after, although, because, before, in addition to, until, and while. For example: "The president said that until he gets Congress' support for his Social Security package, he will refuse to sign the Media bill."

Second, know when to use "that" and when to use "which." Both words can be used to introduces a clause or phrase. For example:

·         Police found two cars in the suspect's garage. They searched the car that matched the description of the car seen leaving the scene of the crime.

·         Police found two cars in the suspect's garage. They searched the red one, which matched the description of the car seen leaving the scene of the crime.

Notice how the italicized phrases, although identical, serve different purposes. Knowing whether to use "that" or "which" depends on figuring out which kind of purpose the phrase or clause is serving.

In the first example, the phrase is specifying which car the police searched. Without it, you would have no way of knowing which of the two cars police had searched. That property makes the phrase "restrictive" or "essential," and such phrases are introduced by "that."

In the second example, the phrase is providing extra information about the car. Without it, you still would know which car the police had searched. They searched the red one. The phrase simply clues you in to the fact that the red car matched the description of a car seen leaving the crime scene. Such "nonessential" or "nonrestrictive" phrases are introduced by "which." Notice also that "which" usually must be preceded by a comma in such usages.

The/A: Putting "the" in front of a noun in a news story usually signals that you have alluded to that noun somewhere earlier in the story, or that readers are already familiar - perhaps from earlier stories - with whatever the "the" is referring to. If neither is the case, readers will be confused. Consider this example of a poorly written lead and second graf:

One person died Friday afternoon in a single-car accident on Tom Mboya Street.
The boy, 6-year-old Jack Tui, was pronounced dead at the scene of the accident. His parents, Jim and Jane Tui, both of Maimuna, are listed in critical condition at Marie Stopes Medical Center.

Your reaction upon reading the two grafs was probably something like, "Boy? What boy are we talking about, here? There's been no mention of a boy." That's precisely the problem. Consider how adding an allusion to the boy earlier in the story helps things out:

A boy died Friday afternoon in a single-car accident on Main Street.
The boy, 6-year-old Brenden Smith, was pronounced dead at the scene of the accident. His parents, Jim and Jane Tui, both of Maimuna, are listed in critical condition at Marie Stopes Medical Center.

Similarly, using "the" in front of a noun or noun phrase in a news story can imply that the noun or noun phrase has been talked about in previous stories and should be well known to the reader. If such is not the case, the reader will be confused. Consider this lead:

The expansion of City Hall has hit an expensive snag, the project's contractor said Monday.

The above lead suggests that the reader already should know about "the expansion." If this is the first-ever story about the expansion, the reader had no way of knowing about it.

Time: Use figures with no ":00" for on-the-hour times. For example: 10 a.m., 11 p.m., 5 a.m., 5 p.m. You also can use 5 o'clock in the afternoon, 10 o'clock in the morning, etc. Express minutes past an hour by using a colon. For example: 10:01 a.m., 10:59 p.m., 5:15 p.m., etc. Some other tips:

·         Express 12 p.m. using the more-readily-understood "noon" and 12 a.m. as the more-readily-understood "midnight." Many people mistakenly think 12 a.m. means noon and 12 p.m. means midnight. The assume "a.m." indicates daytime and "p.m." indicates night time.

Transition: Transition links each paragraph of a news story to the preceding paragraph and provides the momentum necessary to keep the reader reading. Transition also helps link sentences within a paragraph. Some types of transition include:

1. Time sequence:

After screeching through the turn from Main Street onto Broad, the speeding car barreled through a red light at the Waiyaki intersection.
Hitting speeds of up to 80 kph, the car then careened up General Kago Street, finally smashing into a utility pole near Banda Lane.

2. Repeating a sentence structure:

Johnson said she has tried and tried to call attention to the problem.
She has written 25 letters to various government officials.
She has made countless phone calls.
She has even taken time off work to stake out the mayor’s office.

3. Using contrast and/or comparison:

Officials insist the campus has plenty of parking spaces.
However, cars could be seen Monday parked in grassy medians, in front of fire hydrants, on sidewalks and even, in one case, right in the middle of the street.

4. Using geographic sequence:

A spacious lobby greets visitors to the new library.
Across the lobby, stairs lead to an airy reading room and computer center on the second floor.
From here, visitors can take any of four elevators to the stacks on the building’s six other floors.

5. Using pronouns and demonstrative adjectives:

“This ordinance absolutely must pass,” the mayor declared.
He threatened to resign in protest if it didn’t.
That ultimatum irked the council members, who promptly decided to call his bluff.

6. Using conjunctive adverbs:

Developers are applying for a permit to build a landfill on the site.
Meanwhile, environmentalists are organizing opposition to the plan.

(Other conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, consequently, moreover, therefore, however, etc. Be aware that many conjunctive adverbs imply a particular relationship between the thoughs they link. "Therefore," for example, suggests that the second idea is a result or outcome of the first idea. Use these words only when their connotations are accurate.)

7. Using numbers:

Getting healthy involves some basic principles, the trainer said.
First, cut the fat out of your diet. Hamburgers, pizza and bacon are OK, but only as occasional treats, he said.
Second, exercise. As little as 30 minutes a day can make a big difference, he said.

8. Echoing words or grafs from the preceding graf

The accident left 41-year-old Jane Okosi battling for her life in the Maria Medical Center’s intensive care unit.
Okosi, a mother of three, suffered head injuries, a crushed leg and a broken back, a hospital nursing supervisor said.

Very: A word to be avoided. Convey degrees instead by choosing the correct word. Someone who is very angry, for example, is incensed or furious.

Vote tabulations: Use this form: "The Council voted 5-2 against the proposal."

Who/That: Use "who" to refer to people, as in "He's the one who wrote the report" or "They're the ones who wrote the report." Also use "who" to refer to animals that have a name: "Lassie was a dog who starred in a 1980s TV show." Use "that" to refer both to objects and to animals that don't have specific names. For example, "Here's the report that I wrote," and "There's the dog that I was telling you about."

Wordiness: Say what you need to say in as few words as possible. For example, don't write, "The man proceeded to leave the building." Instead, write "The man left the building."

Bll413: writing for the media.2009