BROADCAST WRITING

BROADCAST WRITING

Concise You have a concise copy when all unnecessary words have been trimmed away and only those words essential to convey your thoughts remain. It cannot be overemphasized that broadcast writing is  writing  for  the  ear.  Listeners  do  not  have  the opportunity of “rehearing” your copy, so your sentences should be direct and crystal clear. If your copy is long and involved, you put a strain on the listener and hinder comprehension. Your  obligation  is  to  put  information  into meaningful   terms   that   the   “average   audience”   will understand, and more important, want to hear.

 Complete For  the  broadcast  story  to  be  complete,  you  must include in it at least four of print journalism’s five “Ws.” Obviously, you will normally state  what happened  in your  lead  sentence.  Then  you  will  tell  to  whom  it happened,  when it happened and  where  it  happened. Why and how generally are not critical, although to be complete, some stories will require this information.

Conversational Like   good   conversation,   broadcast   writing   is informal and free-flowing. Write the way you talk. Let the story tell itself. This may sound easy, but it will take some  effort  in  the  beginning.  A  common  pitfall  is  to write a story as it may have been required for an English composition   or   a   print   journalism   assignment. Broadcast copy is read aloud by the announcer. It is not read by the listener. The twofold objective of the conversational tone is that first, it allows the announcer to pick up the drift of the story and second, it makes the copy sound “right” to the audience. A good broadcast writer “listens” to the story being written. When you have finished writing your copy, take it out of the printer and read it aloud to make sure it sounds  conversational.  Make  sure  there  are  no hard-to-pronounce  words  or  combinations  of  words  that are  awkward  to  the  ear.  Rid  your  copy  of  words  that might be unfamiliar to your listeners.

Current If your story is not current, you do not have “hard” news. News of a perishable nature is usually hard news. If you have a story of immediate news value, you should expedite its completion and delivery to the media. By the same token, if there are new facts or circumstances relevant to your initial release, an update of the initial story  should  be  provided  (and  marked  as  an  update). This will help ensure currency. It is also helpful if the new or changed elements of the story are identified to reduce   possible   confusion   with   information   in   the original release. You will feel the pressure of meeting deadlines, but remember your credibility is on the line.

Correct The hallmark of journalism as a writing art — either print  or  broadcast  —  is  the  accurate  presentation  of facts.  Your  finished  product  must  correspond  accurately with the facts of the story. In the field you will follow every possible lead to get the facts as well as report them.

COPY FORMAT

Radio   writing   is   different   from newspaper   writing,   because   the   most   common newspaper lead is the summary lead. For radio copy to include the who, what, where, when,  why  and  how  in  the  lead  would  be  too cumbersome. There is no time for nonessential details in radio news items. For the most part, news stories run from 20 to 30 seconds. Spot announcements run from 10 to 60 seconds, and features may run for two or three minutes, depending on the topic.

THE  BEGINNING The  lead  sentence  must  gain  the  attention  of  the listeners and orient them on the facts that will follow in the body of the story. When you begin a story with a person’s name or a number,  you  risk  the  possibility  of  that  information escaping  your  listener.  Unless you are striving for special effect, avoid  names  and  numbers  at  the  start.  Do  not  use  an “unknown” name at the beginning.

. NAMES AND TITLES In the case of names and titles being used together, titles  should  precede  names.  It  should  be  “Nairobi Mayor  Godffrey Majiwa  —  not  “Godffrey Majiwa  , Nairobi Mayor  .” Alert your listener as to whom you are about to name by prefixing the name with the person’s title. You should refer to government officeholders by title or as  “mister.”  For  example,  you  would  use  “President Kibaki”  or  “Mr.  Kibaki”;  “Mr.  Musyoka”  or  “Vice President Musyoka”; “Hon. Rutto” or “Mr. Rutto.” If  a  difficult  name  is  unessential,  use  only  the person’s   title,   such   as   “The   Ambassador   from Nigeria . ..”

INITIALS Generally, it is better to omit the middle initial of a person’s  name  unless  it  is  a  well-known  part  of  the person’s  name,  such  John F. Kennedy. The other exception to this rule is  when  the  nature  of  the  story  requires  further clarification, such as in births or deaths.

WORDS In broadcast writing, you must be aware of certain categories  of  words  that  are  potential  trouble  areas. These categories are explained in the following text.

Contractions In day-to-day conversations, contractions are used rather  liberally.  Therefore,  you  should  consider  using contractions whenever possible because they add to the “conversationality” of your broadcast copy. A definite exception to this rule is the “it will” contraction “it’ll,” which is awkward when you are trying to read it into a microphone. Additionally, a contraction should not be used when you are intending to stress a particular word or phrase.

Not Avoid the use of the word not in your copy. “Not” can be dropped out of your copy inadvertently and leave“ listeners wondering whether they heard “not.” Note the following examples:

Examples:   

AVOID                                                                    USE

DISHONEST                                                   NOT HONEST

 INNOCENT                                                     NOT GUILTY

FORGOT                                                        DID NOT REMEMBER

IGNORED                                                       DID NOT PAY ATTENTION

 UNABLE NOT                                                           ABLE

Pronouns There is  a  danger  in  using  personal  pronouns  in broadcast copy. When you use “he,” “she” or “they,” make certain there can be no doubt in the listener’s mind to whom you are referring. The ear cannot go back and pick up the identification. Repeat the noun if there may be any question as to whom you are referring.

Alliterations Beware   of   alliterations.   When   you   compose   a sentence  consisting  of  several  words  beginning  with  the same  vowels  or  consonants,  you  have  an  alliteration,

The challenge of writing for broadcast:

• potentially passive audience

• Need to be interesting, (entertaining?)

• summarizing is critical, no time for long explanations
• (which means you have to really know what you're talking about)

• one chance to communicate, then it's gone

• immediacy is a major advantage (over print)

Differences between print and broadcast journalism:

• writing for the ear not the eye

• language of the written word differs from the language of the spoken word

• shorter leads

• often broadcast leads don't contain the 5 W's
• (usually 1 or 2)

• time vs. space (length)

• the ear tires before the eye

• chronology is critical

Things to be aware of:

• Know your audience: helps determine the style of presentation, what you have to say, and
• why you are saying it though it is mass communication, you are writing for one person

• Accuracy: gets to the issue of journalistic integrity and credibility bias verify and substantiate

• Attribution: who takes responsibility for what is said? whose opinion or analysis is reflected?
• separating news fact from commentary/opinion look for ways to shorten the attribution attribute at the start rather than at the end

• Quoting the source: direct or indirect use indirect unless direct adds emphasis or impact

• Other Attribution Words: "said" "told" "reported" all neutral words

• Verb tense: present tense gives immediacy and impact

• Active vs. Passive voice: active is more lively, subject of a verb is the doer of the action, who do you want emphasis on?

• Word usage: simple rather than complex concrete rather than abstract active rather than passive concise rather than wordy

• Grammar: conventional rules don't always apply! commas are important. key - listen, and read aloud copy after you've written it. does it make sense? is it concise? is it accurate?

 (Scholars, these are the ‘mechanics’ of writing the copy)

Broadcast Writing Guidelines:

1. Use 8 and 1/2 x 11 paper.

2. Double space.

3. Use only one side of the paper.

4. Use 1 inch margins.

5. Put slug in upper left corner of the page (single spaced).

Length of story

6. Start story four lines below the slug.

7. Use commas and ellipses to indicate pauses. Breathe!

8. Use ### at the end of the story.

9. If a story continues onto a second page, break the story at a natural pause point.

10. Start each new story on a new page.

11. Underline key words that may be difficult to pronounce. Know who you are writing for.

12. Include phonetic spelling for difficult to pronounce words. The phonetics should be inside parentheses immediately following the word. Capitalize any syllable that needs emphasis.

13. Spell out abbreviations the first time (condense if possible). Abbreviate rarely.

14. Treat numbers properly. Make the abstract concrete.

Spell out numbers one to nine.

Use numerals for 10 - 999.

Use the words for thousands, millions, billions etc.

Round off large numbers unless specific numbers are significant.

Spell out dollars, cents, and percent with reference to numbers.

15. Use st, rd, th and nd after dates, addresses and numbers to be read as ordinals.

16. When using age, use a combination of years and "year old."

Ex. 21-year-old

17. In general, don't begin a story with a number or name.

18. Indirect quotes are usually preferred to direct quotes.

19. Titles precede names.

20. Use present tense as often as possible.

21. Localize/personalize when possible.

22. Avoid overusing "today," "tonight" etc. However, these phrases are preferable to am or pm.

23. Avoid overusing "you" and "your"

THE LAW AND WRITING

There are two kinds of libel — obvious libel and libel by inference (hidden libel), refereed to in law as libel per se and libel per quod, respectively. Do not let yourself become confused by the Latin terms.

LIBEL PER SE The more obvious of the two, libel per se, means “by itself” or “on the face of it.” The reader or viewer does not have to interpret or study in order to understand the libel per se because it is obvious or evident. Libel per se is the more serious of the two types, and persons libeled  in  this  manner  do  not  have  to  prove  that  they suffered damage to their reputations, monetary loss or other injury. Libel per se can support a lawsuit in itself. There are probably thousands of words, phrases and statements in the English language that are libelous in themselves.  Some  of  them  are  of  a  political  nature, others refer to race or religion and still others involve specific professions and occupations. Others (and this is   no   doubt   the   largest   group)   affect   the   honesty, integrity or morals of anyone to whom they are applied. Here are just a few examples of words and phrases you should not use in reference to individuals or groups: c   

Professionals.  

 Lawyer:   shyster,   ambulance chaser, crafty, unprincipled, and slick

Business person:  swindler,  racketeer,  double-dealer,  cheat, and phony.

Politician: liar, grafter, perjurer, seller of  influence,  pocketer  of  public  finds,  and criminal’s   partner.   

Doctor:   quack   abortionist, faker,  and  incompetent.  Also,  never  use  such words as crooked and criminal to descibe people or their behavior.

 Affiliations.  Red, Communist, Nazi, a member of the Ku Klux Klan, atheist, nudist and socialist (sometimes).

 Honesty and Morals.  Unreliable, a credit risk, hypocrite,   adulterer,   unchaste,   prostitute, drunkard, conspirator, mistress and thief.. Over a period of years the meaning of a word or phrase can shift gradually until it is no longer libelous in itself or libelous at all. The reverse also is true. A word or phrase harmless a few years ago maybe libelous in itself today. A  word  that  has  almost  entirely  lost  a  previous libelous per se meaning is “alcoholic.” A few years ago the word was synonymous with “drunkard,” but today it refers to an illness — alcoholism. Words of this type, however, should still be used with caution.

LIBEL PER QUOD The second type of libel is committed by inference and  is  more  “hidden.”  Its  legal  term,  libel  per  quod, means  “because  of  circumstance”  or  “by  means  of circumstance.” In libel per quod, the statements, words or phrases involved maybe harmless in themselves, but become libelous because of attached circumstances. Usually,   such   circumstances   are   unforeseen   by   the publisher, who can claim that the questionable material was  published  in  good  faith  and  without  malice. However, good faith is not a complete defense. Here is a classic example of libel by circumstance: A news story reported an athlete’s spectacular feats on the tennis court the previous Saturday. In fact, the tennis match was on Friday, not Saturday; a simple error. However, the story was libelous per quod because the athlete in question belonged to a religion that observes Saturday   as   the   Sabbath   —   a   day   of   quiet   and meditation.  The  story,  as  it  was  printed,  defamed  the athlete as not being a devout member of his church. Libel  per  quod  is  the  most  common  of  all  libels. Very  few  publishers  intentionally  undertake  the  risk involved in printing material that is obviously libelous. However, libel per quod often occurs because of errors or  negligence.

LIBEL AND THE LAW

There are two types of legal action that can result from publication of libelous material:  civil action and criminal  action.

CIVIL  LIBEL  ACTION Civil  libel  action  results  when  one  person  sues another  in  court  because  of  alleged  defamation.  This defamation,  again,  need  not  be  to  the’  individual’s character or reputation. It can be to a person’s business, occupation  or  property. Civil  libel  also  can  be  committed  against  a  legal “person”  composed  of  more  than  one  individual.  In  this regard,  a  corporation,  a  partnership  or  any  other association  of  individuals  can  be  defamed.  General Motors  could  sue  an  individual  for  defaming  its products or business practices. Also, an individual could sue  General  Motors.  . Civil  libel  suits  are  always  between  persons, whether the “person” is an individual, an association of individuals or an artificial being, such as a corporation. A sum of money is the usual compensation awarded by civil courts for damages. Money  awarded  in  libel  cases  is  intended  to compensate  the  injured  party  for  mental  or  physical suffering and for actual financial loss and to punish the individual or individuals who committed the libel.

CRIMINAL   LIBEL   ACTION Criminal libel action is less common than civil libel action, but it is much more serious. Criminal libel is a crime and can be prosecuted in the courts like any other crime. In criminal libel the state ‘is the accuser and the punisher.  Persons  convicted  of  criminal  libel  can  be fined, imprisoned or both, depending on the gravity of the offense. Any  libel  that  tends  to  disturb  public  peace  and order can be a criminal offense. For instance, if a popular public figure were to be libeled to the extent that riots resulted,   the   libel   would   be   of   a   criminal   nature. Obscene  libel  can  be  a  criminal  offense  because  it  is considered to have an ill effect on public morals. One  of  the  most  grave  types  of  criminal  libel  is seditious  libel  —  that  which  defames  an  established government, or one of its agents, in an attempt to thwart or  overthrow  it.

DEFENSES AGAINST LIBEL ACTION

 An   individual,   a   newspaper   or   other   news organization is not without some degree of protection when being sued for libel.  In the following text, we cover   some   of   the   partial   and   complete   defense strategies   that   might   lessen   the   damages   assessed against a defendant in a libel suit.

Partial Defenses

INNOCENT MISTAKE/ACCIDENT- The first mitigating factor to consider is innocent mistake, or accident. Almost self-explanatory, it means that a defendant can be  excused  partially  if  it  can  be  proved  the  libelous material was published unintentionally or without the publisher  realizing  it  was  defamatory.  The  “innocent mistake” law does not remove liability, but it may reduce it.

RETRACTION,   APOLOGY   OR   CORREC- TION-  A  retraction,  apology  or  correction,  usually printed   with   the   same   prominence   as   the   original libelous material, will sometimes satisfy a person who claims  to  have  been  libeled.  Nevertheless,  the  libeled party  still  retains  the  right  to  bring  suit.  Although retractions, apologies and corrections are three separate (partial) defenses, they are related and often overlap. A retraction is often accompanied by a correction when it is employed, and both, almost always, are accompanied by an apology.  One  disadvantage  of  a  retraction,  or apology, is that it puts the original defamatory remark before  the  public  eye  again,  although  hopefully,  in  a much nicer form.

REPETITION- The defense of repetition can be used when a newspaper uses a libelous story that has been  printed  elsewhere,  in  a  wire  service  article  for example.  In  a  number  of  recent  court  decisions, newspapers   were   not   held   responsible   for   libels committed by wire services, since it was recognized that editors  could  not  possibly  check  out  every  story received from those sources.

LACK  OF  MALICE-In  the  lack  of  malice defense, punitive damages are usually not awarded if the publisher  can  demonstrate  good  faith  and  justifiable ends.

SELF-DEFENSE/REPLY- A self-defense or reply   defense   can   sometimes   be   successful   if   the publisher can show that the libel was a response to a previous attack made by the person claiming libel.

UNCONTRADICTED RUMOR - The uncontradicted rumor defense can sometimes serve to lessen the damages that could be awarded in a libel case if the publisher can show that the libel was merely a published version of widely circulated rumors that the plaintiff had made no effort to deny.

USE OF AUTHORITY- In employing the use of authority defense, a publisher would try to show that the libel originated from a source that could reasonably be expected to be accurate. A successful presentation of this defense, while not exonerating the publisher, could serve to lessen the damages awarded.

PRIOR   BAD   REPUTATION.—   A  prior  bad reputation  defense  might  prove  useful  to  a  publisher accused of libel if it could be shown that the plaintiff already had an unsavory standing in the community and the  defamatory  statement  caused  very  little  additional injury. Keep  in  mind  that  these  partial  defenses  are  just that — partial. They may lessen punitive damages, or in some cases eliminate them, but they do not excuse the libel charge.

Complete Defenses

TRUTH-Truth  is  the  best  complete  defense against libel action. the facts published must be provably true. If   the   law   requires   “truth   without   malice,”   the defendant  also  must  prove  good  intentions.  Malice, however, as judged by the courts today, does not mean only “intent to harm.” The consensus appears to be that “truth   without   malice”   must   be   “truth   for   a   good reason.”  The  good  reason  is  usually  judged  by determining  if  the  material  presented  is  in  the  best interest or concern of the public. For example, a newspaper prints a story about a man running  for  a  high  public  office  and  states  that  the candidate has served a prison term for embezzlement. The  statement  is  true,  and  the  newspaper’s  reason  for printing it is the belief in the public’s right to know, or the  “public  good.”  The  candidate’s  history,  in  this instance,  would  give  reasonable  doubt  of  his qualifications for public office. If,  however,  the  same  statement  had  been  made about  a  private  citizen  who  was  in  no  way  connected with the public welfare, there would have been no “good reason” for publishing that information.

FAIR  COMMENT  AND  CRITICISM.—   A publisher  can  claim  the  fair  comment  and  criticism defense in many instances. The courts are often lenient when fair comment or criticism is made of a political organization or any powerful corporation; in reviews of television  programs,  movies,  plays  and  books;  or  in articles  dealing  with  officials  or  agencies  of  the   government. It has been established that one of the chief functions of the news media is to serve as a critic of the wielders of public or private power. The courts reason that this function should not be arbitrarily suppressed. Many  newspapers  engage  in  “crusades”  against  a dishonest or bungling government or  other  criminal  activities.  As  long  as  a newspaper approaches such a “crusade” in a responsible manner, it is well within its rights. Every year Pulitzer Prizes are given to individual reporters for either having exposed private or public abuses of power, and in some cases,  having  caused  their  confections.

PRIVILEGE-Privilege,  as  a  defense  against libel,  deals  with  legislative  and  judicial  operations. There  are  two  kinds  of  privilege.  One  is  “absolute privilege”; the other is “qualified privilege.”

Absolute Privilege- Absolute  privilege  protects those directly involved in judicial proceedings (judges, attorneys  and  witnesses)  and  legislative  matters  (eg. The President & parliament ).

Absolute privilege does not apply to the news media.

Qualified  Privilege-Qualified  privilege  does apply to the news media and affords them qualified, or conditional, protection in reporting public and official proceedings. The conditions for this protection are that a story must be characterized as follows: 1. Fair, accurate and complete 2.  Without malice 3. Published for justifiable ends. The one limitation of qualified privilege is that a story must not include any obscenity.

Other than that, legislative and judicial proceedings may be reported in their entirety, regardless of the truth or falseness of what is said. The legal theory supporting this license holds that  the  public  interest  in  public  matters  should  be served, even at the expense of individual defamation. Remember, however,  that  this  privilege  does  not cover   the   reporting   of   conventions   of   private organizations, such as political parties, labor unions and churches.

LACK OF PUBLICATION- Lack of publication as a complete defense is more likely to be used in a libel   case   involving   some   form   of   personal communication that may or may not have been seen by a single third party.